Which statement correctly characterizes crowding out in macro policy?

• A. Expansionary fiscal policy can crowd out private investment via higher interest rates, unless monetary policy is accommodative.
• B. Expansionary monetary policy crowds out private investment through higher interest rates.
• C. Fiscal policy cannot crowd out private investment under any circumstances.
• D. Fiscal expansion can crowd out private investment via higher interest rates, unless monetary policy is accommodative.

Answer: (D)

Crowding out happens when a government’s expansionary fiscal actions—like higher spending or tax cuts funded by borrowing—push up the demand for loanable funds. That extra demand raises interest rates, making private borrowers face higher borrowing costs and potentially reducing private investment. The statement captures this idea by saying that fiscal expansion can crowd out private investment through higher interest rates, but the effect can be offset if monetary policy is accommodative (the central bank keeps rates low or adds liquidity). In that case, the higher rates from government borrowing aren’t passed through to private borrowers as strongly, so private investment isn’t pulled back as much. The concept hinges on the interaction between fiscal policy and the stance of monetary policy: crowding out is not automatic, but depends on whether monetary policy offsets the government’s borrowing impact.